Sangam Age | Sangam Literature | 3rd century BCE–3rd century CE

Sangam Age

Around the 3rd century BCE, Megalithic communities expanded from the uplands into fertile river basins and marshy deltas. Two key factors drove this shift: material advancements (iron technology for land clearing and plough agriculture, circulation of punch-marked coins due to north-south trade), and cultural influences from the north (introduced by traders, conquerors, and missionaries of various faiths).

These transitions fostered wet paddy cultivation, numerous settlements, and emerging social classes. Eventually, southern India witnessed the rise of state systems. Three early kingdoms – the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras – emerged in the rice-growing regions of Tamilakam (the land between the Tirupati hills and the southern peninsula). This marks the start of the historical period in south India, generally dated to the 3rd century BCE, though recent discoveries at Kodumanal suggest an even earlier origin, potentially around the 4th century BCE.

Sources for Sangam Age

Our primary source for understanding the political history of this era is the Sangam age literature, a rich collection of laudatory poems known as Early Classical Tamil literature. The ‘Sangam’ refers to assemblies of Tamil poets convened under the patronage of Pandya kings in Madurai. Poems, inspired by older bardic traditions, were transmitted orally for generations before being preserved in written form. The diverse authors represent a wide social spectrum – from royalty and merchants to teachers, soldiers, and artisans.

Importantly, Sangam literature is largely secular. Its broad range of themes and perspectives provides invaluable insights into the everyday world of Tamilakam.

Source: Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Sangam corpus provides a rich literary lens into ancient Tamil society. It includes six of the eight anthologies from the Ettutokai (‘The Eight Collections’) and nine of the ten songs from the Pattuppattu (‘The Ten Songs’). Stylistic choices and historical clues suggest composition between the 3rd century BCE and 3rd century CE. Around the mid-8th century, poems were gathered into anthologies, eventually forming the Ettutokai and Pattuppattu. Significantly, this vast collection contains 2381 poems by 473 poets, including 30 women. Adding context, the first two books of the Tolkappiyam (on Tamil grammar and poetics) are also part of the Sangam corpus.

While much of Sangam literature is lost, a key text mentions the Agattiyam, an early Tamil grammar by sage Agathiyar. Hindu myths depict Agathiyar bringing Tamil syntax from Shiva. It’s believed Tolkappiyar, author of the Tolkappiyam, was Agathiyar’s student. Sangam poems fall into two broad themes: akam (love themes) and puram (often war-centric, but broader public topics occur too). They vividly illustrate life in Tamilakam and peaceful interactions with northern (Aryan) cultures.

Sangam literature divides into narrative and didactic texts. The Melkannakku (’18 Major Works’) are heroic narratives extolling valor amidst perpetual wars and cattle raids. The Kilkanakku (’18 Minor Works’) offer teachings like those in Tiruvalluvar’s Tirukkural (on ethics, philosophy, governance, and love). Tamil epics like Silappadikaram (detailing Kovalan’s tragic love for a courtesan) and its sequel Manimekalai (Buddhist-themed adventures of Kovalan’s daughter) emerged later, between the 5th and 6th centuries.

Three Early Kingdoms

The southernmost part of the Indian peninsula, below the Krishna River, was divided into three principal kingdoms and numerous smaller hereditary chiefdoms. Central to Tamilakam were the Pandyas (dominant in the Tamraparni and Vaigai valleys), the Cholas (lower Krishna valley), and the Cheras (Kerala coast). Each kingdom displayed distinct royal symbols like specialized umbrellas, drums, and staffs.

Subordinate chieftains, known as velir, owed regular tribute to their respective kings. Alliances and warfare between these groups were commonplace, a fact likely reflected in the war-themed poetry of the Sangam Age. This turbulent political landscape offered vast inspiration for the era’s poets.

Source: Ancient and Medieval Indian History

The Pandyas

The Pandya kingdom occupied the southernmost and southeastern parts of the Indian peninsula. Mentioned first by Megasthenes in his Indica, where he describes a pearl-rich kingdom notably ruled by a woman (hinting at possible matrilineal societal influences), Pandyas appear frequently in Sangam Literature. These sources depict a prosperous kingdom that profited greatly from trade with the Roman Empire. Pandya rulers even dispatched ambassadors to Emperor Augustus. Though they performed Vedic sacrifices, demonstrating significant Brahmanical influence within their domain.

The Cholas

Northeast of the Pandyas, between the Penner and Velar rivers, lay the Chola kingdom (known in medieval periods as Cholamandalam or Coromandel). With Uraiyur, famed for its cotton trade, as their capital, the Cholas also commanded a powerful navy. Notably, in the mid-2nd century BCE, Elara, a Chola king, seized and ruled Sri Lanka for almost 50 years. The Cholas’ prosperity stemmed primarily from their lucrative cotton cloth trade.

One of the most renowned Chola monarchs, Karikala, founded the vital port city of Puhar (modern Kaveripattanam), a bustling trade hub. He is also credited with building a vast embankment along the Kaveri River, allegedly using 12,000 Sri Lankan prisoners as labour. Karikala’s battlefield victories cemented his legacy. At the Battle of Venni, he crushed a confederacy of the Pandyas, Cheras, and their allies. Sangam texts emphasize the loss of 11 enemy royal drums (symbols of power) and the Chera king’s symbolic suicide by ritual starvation (vattakirutal). Karikala clinched another decisive victory at Vahaipparandalai, marked by defeated chieftains surrendering their symbolic umbrellas.

The Cheras

The Chera kingdom lay west and north of the Pandyas, thriving due to extensive Roman trade. Roman presence was so significant that they established two military regiments at Muziris (near modern Kochi) and even a temple dedicated to Augustus. Chronic warfare marked Chera history, primarily involving clashes with the Cholas and Pandyas.

One of their most celebrated rulers was Senguttuvan, son of Nedunjeral Adan. Sangam poets lauded him as the ‘Red’ or ‘Good Chera’, renowned for his military campaigns. He defeated the Mokur chieftain and, as described in the post-Sangam text Silappadikaram, captured the Kodukur fortress after conquering Viyalur. Further solidifying his dominance, he intervened in a Chola succession dispute, aiding one claimant while eliminating the others. Legends even claim he pushed northward, battling an Aryan chieftain for stones to create an image of Kannagi (the Silappadikaram heroine revered as a goddess), even bathing in the Ganges before returning.

After the 2nd century CE, Chera power waned, with their history becoming obscure until the 8th century. Beyond Chera kings, Sangam poets also praised chieftains like Ay, Andiran, and Pari for their valor and generosity.

The Economy in Sangam Age

Ancient Tamilakam was comprised of five distinct ecological zones called tinais: kurinji (hills), palai (arid), mullai (pastoral), marudam (wetlands), and neital (coast). These weren’t rigid borders, but rather overlapping throughout the region. Each tina offered unique resources, shaping the livelihoods of its inhabitants. Kurinji people relied on hunting and gathering, palai communities often turned to raiding due to scarce resources, mullai specialized in animal husbandry, marudam in agriculture, and neital in fishing and salt-making.

Agriculture played a central economic role, with rice being the staple crop for both diet and barter. Fertile lands yielded paddy, ragi, sugarcane, fruits, spices, and more. To overcome the lack of perennial rivers, rulers like the Chola king Karikala constructed dams and tanks, a notable early example on the Kaveri River. Textile production, including cotton and silk weaving, stood out amongst other significant crafts, alongside the vital salt trade.

“Indo-Roman trade defined the Sangam economy. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE) provides a detailed account, as does Pliny’s Natural History, where he laments Rome’s ‘gold drain’ due to these exchanges. India exported sought-after commodities: spices (particularly pepper), fine textiles, perfumes, jewels, ivory, precious stones, indigo, sandalwood, and steel. Rome, in turn, exchanged vast quantities of gold and silver, as evidenced by extensive Roman coin discoveries in southern India. Additional imported luxuries included wine (supported by archaeological finds at Arikamedu), alongside tin, lead, coral, and enslaved women.

The discovery of monsoons by Hippatus in 45 CE revolutionized trade, enabling direct sea routes between India, the West, and Southeast Asia. On India’s western coast, bustling ports like Bharukachchha (Broach), Sopara, Kalyana, and Muziris connected to the Roman Empire via the Red Sea. Along the eastern coast, Tamralipti (West Bengal) and Arikamedu (Tamil Nadu) facilitated trade, with ships venturing as far as Southeast Asia.

This economic expansion transformed all three southern kingdoms, fostering towns and craft centers. Vanji, the Chera capital, bustled with commerce. Muziris/Muchiri, famed for pepper exports, saw Roman ships laden with gold. Intriguingly, the 2nd century Vienna Papyrus records a trade agreement between merchants in Alexandria and Muchiri. Madurai, the Pandya capital, specialized in textiles and ivory, while their port of Korkai was famed for pearls. The Chola capital, Uraiyur (Tiruchirapalli), was a marvel, and Kaveripattinam (Puhar) their primary port.

Sangam poems describe thriving markets protected by vigilant soldiers guarding trade routes and preventing smuggling. Merchants paid transit duties, while rulers profited from tributes, plunder, and spoils of war.

Society during Sangam Age

Tamil Brahmi inscriptions reveal a hierarchy with ‘ko’ or ‘kon’ used as titles for both kings and lesser chieftains. While Brahmanas emerged during the Sangam age, initially holding roles as poets and advisors, they lacked the rigid privileges associated with later caste distinctions. Vedic influence existed, but meat and wine consumption remained common even among Brahmanas.

Though the fourfold varna system was understood, early Sangam society prioritized kuti (clan) as the basis for social structure. These clan-based divisions lacked restrictive barriers, allowing for intermarriage and shared meals. The arasar formed the ruling class, often interconnected by marriage with the vellalas, a wealthy peasant caste who were major landholders. The majority of agricultural work fell to the kadaisiyan laborers, with some, like the pariyars (working with animal hides), facing greater marginalization. Occupational titles such as artisan or merchant illustrate a further basis for social distinction. Even during this period, vast inequalities existed, evident in the stark contrast between the housing and dress of the poor versus the prosperous.

Warriors commanded respect in both Sangam society and politics. Formally bestowed with the title ‘enadi’, army commanders led forces comprised of ox-drawn chariots, elephants, imported horses, and infantry. Elephant troops were particularly crucial. Fallen war heroes were honored with commemorative stones (nadukal or virukkal) and revered as deities.

The Sangam period saw a unique blending of northern and southern religious traditions. Brahmanas introduced and popularized deities like Indra, Vishnu, and Shiva. To consolidate their power, some rulers even embraced Brahmanical sacrifices, with one Pandya king earning the title Palshalai, reflecting his patronage. Buddhism and Jainism also established a presence. Meanwhile, local beliefs persisted, notably the worship of Murugan, a hill deity later associated with the northern war god Kartikeya (becoming Subramaniya in later periods).

Older Megalithic traditions concerning care for the dead continued, as evidenced by rice offerings, though cremation was also introduced. The belief in ‘ananku’ – sacred forces in certain objects – was widespread. Pariyans, pananas, and velans, often viewed as lower castes, became ritual specialists dedicated to managing ananku through dance, song, tending to cremation fires, and honoring memorial stones. Women were also understood to possess ananku, with chastity seen as a means to control its potent, auspicious aspects.

Though Sangam society imposed some restrictions, women participated in various spheres. The wealth of female poets in Sangam literature speaks to their education. They also contributed to economic life, working in rice planting, animal husbandry, crafts, and textile production. Yet, the tragic custom of Sati (tippayadal), where widows were expected to self-immolate, reflects harsh societal expectations. While not universally enforced, as evidenced by mentions of widows, their lives were severely restricted with prohibitions on adornment or enjoyment. Interestingly, Sangam poems mention ‘chevilittai’, acting as foster mothers and seemingly enjoying high respect within families.

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