Post-Mauryan Period: North, North-Western and Western India

Post-Mauryan Period North India

The period from approximately 200 B.C. did not see the rise of a large empire. However, it is historically significant for its widespread cultural contacts with Central Asia and the integration of foreign elements into Indian society. This period saw the emergence of several political regions in north and northwestern India. We will study some of the most prominent dynasties, including the Sungas, Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, and Kushanas.

Sources for Post-Mauryan Period

Reconstructing the political history of this period requires piecing together evidence from various sources. Puranic lists of dynasties and rulers provide valuable insights for some regions. Inscriptions are also crucial, sometimes supplementing Puranic information. For the period immediately following the Mauryan collapse, additional information can be gleaned from texts like the Gargi Samhita, Patanjali’s Mahabhashya, the Divyavadana, Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitra, and Bana’s Harshacharita. Ayodhya, Vidisa, and Bharhut inscriptions offer further evidence of Sunga history.

The post-Mauryan period witnessed a decentralization of political power. Two primary trends emerged. Firstly, in the northwest, a succession of rulers—of Greek, Saka or Parthian, and Yueh-chi origin—held power. Secondly, throughout most of northern India, smaller local ruling families came to the forefront. We even find evidence of gana-samghas (oligarchic republics) during this time.

Coins became a vital source of information regarding these ruling families. Names of rulers inscribed on coins are invaluable, but to build a comprehensive political history, we must draw upon other sources.

Cultural connections intensified during this period, particularly with Central Asia. This means additional, unique sources become important when studying the northwestern region. Alongside coins, we have numerous Kharosthi script inscriptions from Gandhara, as well as Kharosthi documents discovered in Central Asia. Greek and Latin texts offer occasional insights into northwestern India’s rulers and regions. Moreover, Buddhist sources, like the Pali work Milinda-Panha, illuminate the Yavana King Menander and Buddhism’s role at this time. Even Chinese historical chronicles contain references to events in Central Asia, Bactria, and northwest India. For example, to understand the early history of the Yueh-chi or Kushanas, we rely on records from China’s early and later Han dynasties.

The Sungas

The Sungas, a brahmana family likely originating from the Ujjain region in Western India, served as officials under the Maurya kings. Pushyamitra Sunga founded the dynasty after allegedly assassinating Brihadratha, the last Maurya king, in 180 B.C. This account is supported by Bana, the Sanskrit prose writer and court poet of Harshavardhana of Kanauj. An ardent supporter of Brahmanism, Pushyamitra revived the Vedic asvamedha (horse sacrifice) ritual, symbolizing his royal dominion. The Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva states that Pushyamitra performed two horse sacrifices, revealing his expansive rule and his commitment to Brahmanical orthodoxy.

While Buddhist sources suggest Pushyamitra persecuted Buddhists, claims found in texts like the Divyavadana describe him destroying monasteries and places of worship built by Asoka. These accounts require careful consideration alongside other historical evidence.

The Puranas attribute a 36-year reign to Pushyamitra, succeeded by his son Agnimitra. Unfortunately, we know little about Agnimitra’s rule. Muladeva appears to have been a significant king, potentially signaling the beginning of the Sunga dynasty’s decline. Some historians connect him with coins discovered in Ayodhya, and he may be the predecessor of Dhanadeva, the ‘Lord of Kosala’ in the Ayodhya inscription. This suggests Muladeva ruled the independent Kosala principality. As a result, the original Sunga power became consolidated to Magadha and the Central Indian territories.

Devabhuti was the last Sunga king. According to Banabhatta’s Harsha-Charita, he fell victim to a plot by his brahmana minister, Vasudeva. The Sunga lineage ended around 75 B.C., and though Vasudeva established the short-lived Kanva dynasty, it endured for only four generations.

The Indo-Greeks

Starting around 200 B.C., a series of migrations occurred across the northwestern borders of the Indian subcontinent. The Greeks, who ruled Bactria (located in modern-day North Afghanistan, south of the Oxus River), were among the first to cross the Hindukush. While Alexander’s earlier invasion of northwestern India didn’t immediately lead to significant cultural exchange, the true mingling of Greek and Indian cultures happened in the second century B.C. This was driven by the Bactrian Greek kings who expanded into northwest India, becoming known as the Indo-Greeks.

Following the collapse of the Achaemenid Empire in Iran and Alexander’s death, territories once under their control fell to Alexander’s generals. Over time, the Greek rulers of Bactria (originally subordinates of the Seleucids) and the Arsacid rulers of Parthia began asserting their independence. However, both faced a growing threat from Scythian tribes. Barred from China by the Great Wall, the Scythians turned their attention toward the Greeks and Parthians. Under this pressure, the Bactrian Greeks were forced southward into India. Their invasions began during the later years of Mauryan rule, when Asoka’s successors lacked the strength to resist effectively. By the first half of the second century B.C., the Indo-Greeks occupied a significant portion of northwestern India. They conducted occasional raids even deeper into the country, reaching regions like Panchala, Saketa, and Pataliputra.

Menander (or Milinda), one of the most celebrated Indo-Greek rulers, extended his power from the Swat Valley to Punjab as far as the Ravi river. His capital was Sakala (modern-day Sialkot) in Punjab. Menander is famous for his conversion to Buddhism under the influence of Nagasena, a Buddhist monk and philosopher. Their extensive discussions on Buddhist philosophy were recorded in the Milinda-Panha (‘The Questions of Milinda’), a significant text in Buddhist literature.

We know the names of at least thirty Bactrian Greek rulers thanks to their extensive coinage. Menander’s coins, for example, have been discovered from Kabul in the north to Mathura near Delhi. Reconstructing Indo-Greek history relies heavily on these coins, which bear legends in Greek, and later in Kharosthi and Brahmi. However, interpreting them can be complex, as multiple kings shared identical names and differentiating their coins requires careful analysis.

The Indo-Greeks’ coinage, particularly their skillfully crafted silver pieces, significantly influenced local rulers who issued their own coins during this period. The nature and wide circulation of this coinage suggests extensive trade networks. Furthermore, the Indo-Greeks are crucial for introducing Hellenistic artistic elements to northwestern India, laying the foundations for the Gandhara art style.

The Sakas

The Sakas, also known as Scythians, are sometimes grouped with the Parthians in Indian sources as the Saka-Pahlawa. Distinguishing between Saka and Pahlawa rulers can be challenging, even based on their names. However, historians have identified distinct Saka ruling families associated with different regions of northwestern, northern, and western India.

The Sakas likely entered India via the Bolan Pass, initially settling in the lower Indus region. Various branches of the Sakas left their mark on coins and other historical sources. One branch established itself in Afghanistan, while another ruled from Taxila in Punjab. A third branch held power in Mathura, and a fourth established a long-lasting presence (until about the fourth century CE) in Western and Central India.

The Sakas, nomadic tribes from Central Asia, were successful in breaking Greek control over Bactria. Pushed south by the Yueh-chi, another Central Asian tribe, the Sakas encroached on Indo-Greek territories in northern and northwestern India. Our understanding of the Sakas in India comes from sources like Greek and Roman annals, early Chinese writings, inscriptions, and coins. References to the Sakas are also found in early Indian texts like the Mahabhashya, as well as Puranic and epic accounts that associate them with regions in the far north.

Maues (or Moga) was the first Saka king in India, establishing their power in Gandhara. Evidence of his rule comes from coins, dated inscriptions, and a Taxila copper plate inscription linked to the enshrinement of Buddhist relics. Maues was succeeded by Azes, who defeated Hippostratos, the last Greek king in northern India.

While the Sakas established footholds in various parts of India, their power endured longest in Western India, lasting for four centuries. Rudradaman I (c. 130-152 CE), the most celebrated Saka ruler, controlled Sindh, Kutch, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Konkan, the Narmada Valley, Malwa, Kathiawar, and the Western Deccan. The Junagadh inscription, composed in 150 CE, extols his military conquests, his vast territories, and his esteemed qualities. This inscription also meticulously details Rudradaman’s officials repairing the Sudarsana Lake, a Mauryan-era irrigation project in the semi-arid Kathiawar region. Notably, this lengthy inscription is the first major one written in Sanskrit, demonstrating Rudradaman’s patronage of the language. The Sakas of Western India continued their rule beyond Rudradaman’s death, facing occasional challenges but persevering until the late fourth century CE.

“The Sakas and Parthians introduced a satrap system of government, mirroring the Achaemenid and Seleucid systems used in Iran. Their kingdoms were divided into provinces, each led by a military governor titled Mahakshatrapa (‘great satrap’). Lower-ranking governors were called Kshatrapas (‘satraps’). These governors enjoyed significant autonomy, as evidenced by their ability to issue inscriptions and mint their own coins. The Saka kings further displayed their power by adopting prestigious titles like ‘king of kings’ (rajadhiraja) and ‘great king’ (Maharaja), previously used by the Greeks.

The Parthians

The Parthians, originating from Iran, likely sent ruling families towards the Indo-Iranian borderlands and northwestern India as representatives of the Parthian empire. Close contact between the Sakas of Seistan and the Parthians explains the blend of Scythian and Iranian elements found within Indian Saka culture.

Gondophares was the most prominent Parthian king. His domain extended from Kabul to Punjab and may have included portions of the Parthian empire in Iran. His coinage reveals his progression from a subordinate position to independent ruler. Gondophares is associated with St. Thomas, as tradition holds that the apostle traveled from Israel to Gondophares’ court to spread Christianity in India.

The scarcity of silver coins attributed to the Parthians suggests their Indo-Parthian empire may have faced economic challenges. Some scholars theorize that they relied on the extensive silver coinage of their predecessors, the Sakas and Indo-Greeks, for higher currency needs. This may have been supplemented by coins of lesser value, made from a mix of precious and cheaper metals.

Abdagases appears to have succeeded Gondophares, initially serving as a subordinate ruler under his uncle. This is evidenced by jointly issued coins bearing both their names. Excavations at Taxila’s Sirkap site reveal numerous small coins marking the end of Parthian rule in India. Over time, the Parthians assimilated into Indian society.

The Kushanas

We now turn to the Kushanas, who succeeded the Parthians in the far northwest and gradually expanded into Northern India. Also known as the Yueh-chi or Tocharians, the Kushanas were one of five clans within a nomadic tribe originating from the steppes of North Central Asia near China. They displaced both the Sakas in Bactria and the Parthians in Gandhara. After consolidating power beyond India’s borders, the Kushanas steadily extended their authority, eventually encompassing the lower Indus basin and much of the Gangetic plain down to Varanasi. Though their empire spanned roughly a century, their integration into Indian society and cultural contributions had a lasting impact. Like the Sakas and Pahlavas, they are found in Epic, Puranic, and other literature. Importantly, the Kushana empire became a nexus where Mediterranean, West Asian, Central Asian, Chinese, and Indian civilizations intersected.

Coins, inscriptions, and other sources illuminate two successive Kushana dynasties. Kujula Kadphises, who united the five Yueh-chi tribes, founded the first line. He expanded into India, establishing power in Kabul and Kashmir. Kujula Kadphises issued various copper coins, including one with a Roman-style male bust.

Vima Kadphises succeeded Kujula, ushering in a new era of Indian coinage by regularly issuing gold coins. Inspired by the weight system of Roman gold coins, Vima minted various types, establishing a standard that influenced coinage through the Gupta period. His gold and copper coinage suggests strengthened ties with the Roman world.

Kanishka I, whose reign is celebrated for his connection to Buddhism, succeeded the Kadphises rulers. While his exact relation to the previous kings is unclear, Kanishka I was also of Central Asian origin. The Kushana empire reached its height under his leadership. His era facilitated cultural development in Northern India and increased interaction between geographically diverse peoples.

Historians debate the precise date of Kanishka I’s ascension, with estimates ranging from 78 CE. to 144 CE. or later. The year 78 CE, popularly associated with the Saka Era, is considered the most likely date. The Kushana empire’s apex saw it stretch to Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh and Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh. While Purushapura (near modern Peshawar) served as the primary capital, Mathura was a secondary center of power. In Purushapura, Kanishka commissioned a monastery and a magnificent stupa.

Kanishka I is a pivotal figure in Buddhist history, renowned as a great patron of the faith. He famously convened the Fourth Buddhist Council to address theological and doctrinal matters, leading to the formalization of Mahayana Buddhism. His reign spurred missionary activity, with Buddhist monks journeying to Central Asia and China. Kanishka was also a patron of the arts and Sanskrit literature.

Kanishka I’s successors maintained power for over a century, but Kushana influence steadily waned. Some later rulers adopted Indian names like Vasudeva. In the mid-third century CE, the rising Sassanian empire of Iran encroached on the Kushana territories west of the Indus and in Afghanistan. Peshawar and Taxila fell to the Sassanians, reducing the Kushanas to a subordinate status.

Significance of Central-Asian Contacts

The political dominance of northern and northwestern India by rulers of foreign origin introduced new cultural elements. These elements assimilated into mainstream Indian society, significantly impacting trade, technology, and artistic expression. Let’s examine the effects of these Central Asian contacts under several key areas:

Trade and Technology

The influx of foreigners into India cemented regular trade with Central Asia. While some routes to Afghanistan existed, new paths throughout Central Asia emerged, including the famed Silk Route. Traders of diverse origins established stations and colonies like Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan, and Miran, serving as hubs for their operations. Impetus for trade came not only from Indian merchants but also from Buddhist missionaries. This enhanced communication with China.

The Kushanas, overseeing the Silk Route, generated vast wealth through tolls. This trade network ran from China through Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Western Asia. India received significant quantities of gold from Central Asia’s Altai Mountains and potentially from trade with the Roman Empire. Notably, the Kushanas were the first Indian rulers to issue gold coinage on a large scale.

The Sakas and Kushanas introduced innovations in Indian cavalry and warfare techniques. Horse riding surged in popularity, along with saddles and reins, which appear frequently in Buddhist sculptures of the era. Equestrian terracotta figures excavated from Begram in Afghanistan illustrate a passion for horsemanship. The Central Asians also introduced warrior attire like caps, helmets, and boots, which gained prominence in Northwest India.

Material Remains

Archaeological evidence, including structures, pottery, and coins, reveals the introduction of new techniques during the Saka-Kushana period. Excavations in Northern India show advances in building practices, as evidenced by multi-layered structures using burnt bricks for both floors and roofs. Brick wells may have also been introduced. This period’s distinctive red-ware pottery, both plain and polished, included sprinklers and spouted channels—styles echoing those found in Central Asian Kushana sites. Kushana coinage borrowed heavily from Roman styles, while Saka coins often adapted Indo-Greek designs with some unique variations.

Polity

The Sakas and Kushanas emphasized the divine origin of kingship. Kushana rulers adopted the title ‘Son of God,’ possibly borrowed from Chinese tradition, or the Indian equivalent of the Roman ‘Caesar’ to bolster their authority. Similar concepts appear in Manu, the Brahmanical lawgiver.

The Sakas introduced the satrap system, dividing their empire into regions led by satraps. There’s also evidence of governing through subordinate rulers. This administrative method, likely originating in the Indo-Greek period, used officials like meridarkhs for districts and smaller units. Inscriptions and coins reveal numerous Kshatrapas and Mahakshatrapas.

Some foreign rulers introduced hereditary dual rule, with two kings of different status ruling simultaneously (e.g., father and son). Militarily, they likely borrowed the ‘Strategos’ title from the Greeks for governors key to holding power and fending off invasions from the northwest.

Religion and Art Forms

Earlier in this unit, we noted rulers like Menander and Kanishka converting to Buddhism. Other rulers venerated Vishnu or Shiva. For example, Kushana ruler Vasudeva’s name references Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu. On some Kushana coins, both Shiva and Buddha appear, illustrating this adaptation to Indian beliefs during their assimilation. Beyond religion, foreign rulers patronized Indian art and literature. Artisans from abroad interacted with local craftsmen, fostering a vibrant exchange. The Gandhara style, fusing Greek, Roman, and Indian aesthetics, epitomizes this synthesis, inspiring artists as far as Mathura where beautiful Buddhist sculptures were created.

Conclusion

Over time, the Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, and Kushanas were assimilated into Indian society. Having arrived as conquerors, most were absorbed into the Kshatriya (warrior) class. Brahmanical lawgivers eased this integration by classifying them as Kshatriyas who had deviated from their duties. This provided them a place within the social order, facilitating their full assimilation.

This unit explored major political trends in India from the post-Mauryan era to around 300 CE. Notably, groups originating in Central Asia seized control in northern India. This forged new trade routes and communication channels, leading to a widespread cultural exchange as both people and ideas moved across borders.

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