Evolution of Society and Culture: Evidence of Vedic texts (Samhitas to Sutras)

Vedic Texts

After the decline of the Harappan civilization around 1500 BCE, a new culture emerged in the Saptasindhu region. These were nomadic pastoralists who spoke Sanskrit. Their belief system centered on nature worship, and they expressed their faith through sacrifices known as Yajnyas. They composed prayers (richa/shloka) for worship, recited during sacrificial rites. These prayers were compiled into texts called the Vedas. The Sanskrit-speaking people who created the Vedas were known as Aryans, a population of mixed origin sharing a common language. The culture within which the Vedas were composed is called Vedic Culture.

Initially, the Aryans were nomadic within the Saptasindhu region. However, over the course of two to three centuries, they migrated further into India in search of better pastures. This movement led to two distinct stages of Vedic culture: the Early Vedic Period (Saptasindhu region) and the Later Vedic Period (inland India). The literature produced during these periods reveals the cultural transformations the Vedic Aryans experienced.

Vedic Texts

Vedic texts encompass a vast corpus of literature. This includes the four Vedas (Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sam-Veda, Atharva-Veda), as well as their corresponding appendices (Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads). Additionally, explanatory texts such as the Vedangas and Shaddarshanas are considered part of Vedic literature. These texts offer ritualistic interpretations, philosophical explorations, and linguistic analysis to support a deeper understanding of the Vedas.

The Early Vedic Literature: Rig-Veda (2 to 9 mandalas)

  • The Rig-Veda, the earliest of Vedic literature, was composed during the Aryans’ nomadic period in the Saptasindhu region. It consists of 10 mandalas (sections), with mandalas 2 through 9 considered the core of the Early Vedic Period. This collection of prayers, or “richas,” is attributed to specific sages and scholars.
  • The Rig-Veda’s richas are dedicated to various natural forces – rain, fire, wind, sun, dawn, and others – deified as powerful entities. These include Indra, Varuna, Agni, Marut, Surya, and Usha, among others. The Rig-Veda portrays these deities with a complex mixture of benevolent and malevolent traits.

Vedic literature in the Later Vedic Period

  • Rig-Veda (1st and 10th mandalas): The later additions to the Rig-Veda, including mandalas 1 and 10, offer valuable insights into Early Vedic society. Of particular note is the 10th mandala’s Purush-sukta, which provides one of the earliest references to the four-fold division of Vedic society: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
  • Yajur-Veda: Building upon the foundation of the Rig-Veda, the Yajur-Veda serves as a practical guide to the rituals and procedures of Vedic sacrifices. This reflects the importance of sacrificial practices in Vedic culture. The Yajur-Veda exists in two forms: the Shukla (white) and Krishna (black) Yajur-Veda.
  • Sam-Veda: The Sam-Veda focuses on the musical and melodic aspects of Vedic worship. Its content draws heavily from the Rig-Veda, providing instructions for the proper chanting of prayers during rituals. The Sam-Veda is divided into two sections: the Archaic and Uttararchik.
  • Atharva-Veda: The Atharva-Veda, the last of the four Vedas, stands apart with its focus on subjects such as mysticism, magic (including black magic), and even statecraft. This diverse collection of texts offers a unique window into the beliefs and practices of Vedic society beyond purely religious themes.

Appendices of Vedas (Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads)

The Vedic Knowledge System

The Vedic Aryans developed a vast body of prose literature to elaborate upon the wisdom contained within the Vedas. Each Veda has its own associated Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, which serve distinct purposes:

  • Vedas and their Corresponding Literature:
    • Rig-Veda: Aiterya and Kaushitaki Brahmanas, Aiterya and Kaushitaki Aranyakas, and Aiterya and Kaushitaki Upanishads
    • Yajur-Veda: Taitariya and Shatapath Brahmanas, Taitariya and Brihad Aranyakas, and Aitariya and Kaushitaki Upanishads
    • Sam-Veda: Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahamanas, Chandogya and Jaiminiya Upanishads
    • Atharva-Veda: Mundak and Prasha Upanishads
  • Functions of the Literature:
    • Brahmanas: These texts focus on the intricate details and rules governing sacrificial rituals, reflecting the centrality of these practices within Vedic culture.
    • Aranyakas and Upanishads: These delve into philosophical and spiritual concepts derived from the Vedas. They explore profound themes such as the nature of the universe, the relationship between the individual soul (atman) and the universal spirit (Brahman), and the meaning of existence itself.

Explanatory books of Vedas (Vedangas, Shada-darshanas)

Vedangas: Tools for Vedic Understanding

The Vedangas were developed as supplementary fields of study to ensure the correct interpretation and practice of Vedic knowledge. They comprise:

  • Shiksha: Focusing on phonetics and pronunciation – essential for the proper recitation of Vedic prayers.
  • Kalpa: Outlining the procedures and rituals associated with Vedic sacrifices.
  • Vyakaran: Providing a grammatical framework for understanding the complex language of the Vedas.
  • Nirukta: Exploring the etymology of Vedic words, offering insights into their deeper meanings.
  • Chanda: Addressing the meter and musical aspects of Vedic recitation.
  • Jyotish: Concerned with astronomy and astrology, determining auspicious times for performing sacrifices and rituals.

Shad-darshanas: Philosophies for Unlocking Vedic Wisdom

The Shad-darshanas (literally “six viewpoints”) represent diverse schools of philosophical thought that emerged to analyze and systematize the spiritual concepts found within the Vedas. These include:

  • Nyaya (Gautama): Emphasizes logic and reasoning for understanding reality.
  • Sankhya (Kapil): Proposes a dualistic framework, exploring the relationship between consciousness (purusha) and matter (prakriti).
  • Yog (Patanjali): Outlines a path for self-discipline and meditation, aiming for the union of the individual soul with the cosmic consciousness.
  • Vaisheshika (Kanada): Focuses on atomism and the nature of the physical world.
  • Purva-mimasa (Jaimini): Stresses the importance and analysis of Vedic rituals as a means to achieving desired results.
  • Uttar-mimasa (Badarayana, also known as Vedanta): Explores the concepts of Brahman (ultimate reality), atman (individual soul), and the nature of the universe.

Social Life

Rig Vedic Society

Early Vedic society was primarily tribal, with kinship ties forming the core of social relationships. Even leaders like the raja (chief or king), purohitas (priests), and artisans were integrated into these clan networks. There was no rigid caste system at this stage. The term ‘jana’ referred to the tribe, with many references to different tribes found in the Rigveda.

The raja, or gopati, served as the tribal leader, primarily responsible for leadership in battle and protecting the tribe. This position was not hereditary but selected from among the clansmen. Warriors formed a distinct category known as ‘rajanya.’ Clans (vis) formed tribes, and these settled in villages (grama). The fundamental social unit was the patriarchal family (kula), headed by the eldest male member known as the kulapa (‘protector of the family’).

Despite its patriarchal structure, women held a significant position in Early Vedic society. They received education, participated in assemblies, and some even composed sacred hymns. Women could exercise some agency in choosing their partners and marrying later in life. However, they were ultimately considered dependent on male figures like their fathers, brothers, or husbands. Education was primarily oral, with formal systems of education less developed in this period.

The Rigveda authors distinguished themselves from groups they called Dasas and Dasyus, describing them with distinct physical characteristics and cultural practices. These groups, along with others like the cattle-rich Panis, inhabited the same regions as the Vedic people. Interactions and potential conflicts between these diverse groups might have played a role in the later emergence of the varna system.

Various occupational groups existed, including weavers, smiths, carpenters, leather workers, chariot-makers, and priests. Chariot-makers held particular social prestige. While there are no references to beggars or wage systems, social stratification existed based on wealth, including ownership of chariots and cattle.

Later Vedic Society

Early Vedic society was fundamentally tribal, with kinship forming the basis of social organization. Leaders such as the raja (chief or king), purohitas (priests), and artisans were integrated into existing clan structures. A rigid caste system was absent in this period. The Rigveda references various tribes, known as ‘jana’.

The raja, also called gopati, served as the tribal leader, primarily focused on warfare and protection. This position was not hereditary but selected from within the clans. A distinct warrior category, the ‘rajanya’, existed. Clans (‘vis’) combined to form tribes, which settled in villages (‘grama’). The patriarchal family (‘kula’) was the basic social unit, headed by the eldest male, the ‘kulapati’ (‘protector of the family’).

Despite a patriarchal structure, women held a respected position in Early Vedic society. They received education, participated in assemblies, and some composed sacred hymns. Women could choose their partners and marry later in life. However, they were ultimately considered dependent on male figures (fathers, brothers, husbands). Education was largely oral, with formal systems less developed.

The Rigveda distinguishes the Vedic people from groups they called Dasas and Dasyus, who possessed different physical and cultural traits. These groups, along with others like the cattle-rich Panis, coexisted within the same region. Interactions and potential conflicts among these diverse groups may have contributed to the later development of the varna system.

Various occupations existed, including weavers, smiths, carpenters, leather workers, chariot-makers, and priests. Chariot-makers were particularly prestigious. While beggars and wage systems aren’t mentioned, social stratification based on wealth and possessions (like chariots and cattle) is evident.

Concept of Varna

The varna system, which would become a defining feature of later Hindu society, began to take shape in the Later Vedic period. Key characteristics included:

  • Status by Birth: Social position was determined by birth within a particular varna, introducing a hereditary element.
  • Hierarchy: Varnas were arranged hierarchically, with Brahmanas (priests) at the top and Shudras (laborers) at the base, above them were the Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers) and Vaishyas (merchants and farmers).
  • Endogamy and Purity: Marriage was restricted within one’s varna, and concepts of ritual purity were used to reinforce distinctions between groups.

Connections to Dharma: The varna system was linked to the broader concept of Dharma (universal law). The idea of “varnadharma” emphasized the specific duties and obligations associated with each social group to ensure societal order. However, this system was not fully rigid at this stage.

Flexibility and Social Change: While divisions based on occupation existed, they weren’t strictly determined by birth. Social mobility was still possible. The Later Vedic period saw the Vedic people expand geographically, leading to encounters with diverse non-Vedic tribes. This interaction likely contributed to a more complex and evolving social structure. Elements of non-Vedic practices, evident in the Atharvaveda, were gradually integrated into the broader belief system.

Maintaining Status: Tribal endogamy (marriage within the tribe) aimed to preserve a sense of purity. Additionally, the rising power and influence of the Kshatriya and Brahmana varnas likely motivated efforts to maintain their exclusivity and superiority. While the concept of untouchability wasn’t present, the seeds of social stratification were being sown.

Gotra

The Later Vedic period saw the emergence of the gotra system (literally meaning “cow pen”). This concept signified descent from a common ancestor. Gotra exogamy, or marrying outside one’s gotra, became the norm, replacing the earlier practice of tribal endogamy (marriage within the tribe). This shift likely reflects the changing social landscape, as the Vedic people interacted with and integrated elements of non-Vedic tribes. The gotra system helped regulate marriage alliances and may have contributed to maintaining social distinctions within the increasingly complex society.

Status of Grhapati increased and position of Women declined

The Patriarchal Family and Economic Shifts

The Later Vedic period saw the consolidation of the patriarchal family, with the grhapati (householder) holding a privileged position. As domestic and settled agricultural practices gained prominence, the role of the householder became economically significant. Land rights were largely based on usage, with communal ownership being prevalent. Wealthy grhapatis acted as jajamana (patrons of sacrifices), performing yajnas to gain merit. Their wealth was self-generated, though a portion was redistributed to Brahmanas through sacrificial practices.

Women’s Roles: Subordination and Exceptions

Despite the presence of female philosophers and rare instances of queens participating in coronation rituals, women were generally considered subordinate to men. They were largely excluded from major decision-making processes within both the family and broader society.

Three Stages of Life

The Evolving Ashrama System

Initially, three ashramas (stages of life) were recognized in Vedic society:

  • Brahmachari: The stage of studentship, focusing on education and spiritual development.
  • Grihastha: The householder stage, emphasizing family life, fulfilling social duties, and economic pursuits.
  • Vanaprastha: A stage of partial retirement, where individuals retreated to the forest to pursue contemplation and spiritual practices.

The fourth ashrama, Sannyasa, characterized by complete renunciation of worldly life, appears to have emerged later, likely gaining prominence around the time of the Upanishads. Sanyasis, or ascetics, represented a departure from the prescribed social path. Their practices involved varying degrees of protest, either passive or active, against the rigidities of the Vedic social structure.

Economic Life

Rig Vedic Economy

Pastoralism and Shifting Cultivation: The Foundations of Early Vedic Economy

The Early Vedic people were primarily pastoralists, with cattle rearing at the heart of their society. The linguistic evidence from the Rigveda is overwhelming, with numerous terms derived from “gau” (cow) reflecting the centrality of cattle to wealth, kinship, conflict, and even units of time and distance. Literary references further highlight the importance of pasture lands, dairy products, and domesticated animals.

Agriculture, while present, played a less prominent role. There’s limited mention of grains beyond barley, suggesting an early stage of agricultural development. The lack of iron technology and reliance on less-efficient stone tools limited their agricultural capabilities. Instead, shifting cultivation appears to have been practiced, involving burning forest cover and using simple implements. This, along with references to frequent movement, paints a picture of a semi-nomadic or nomadic society dependent on grazing lands.

Gift Exchange, Redistribution, and Social Dynamics

Gift-giving and redistribution played a crucial role in Early Vedic economics. Tribal conflicts often resulted in tribute payments (“bali”) to victorious chiefs. War spoils were shared among the victorious tribe, reinforcing social bonds. Chiefs also displayed prestige and power by hosting feasts and gifting to their followers.

The concept of private property based on landownership was absent. While trade and commerce existed, evidence of it is limited compared to the focus on cattle and gift exchange.

Later Vedic Economy

From Pastoralism to Agriculture: The Later Vedic Transition

The Later Vedic period saw a significant shift towards agriculture, facilitated by the fertile alluvial plains of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab and the middle-Ganga valley. While pastoralism remained important, its influence gradually decreased, as evidenced in both literary and archaeological sources.

Rice emerged as a staple crop, with terms like Vrihi, Tandula, and Sali appearing in Vedic texts. Archaeological sites from the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) and Banas cultures have yielded charred rice grains, further confirming its widespread use. Evidence suggests the practice of double-cropping, with fields producing both barley and rice.

Elaborate sacrificial rituals, such as the Rajasuya, included offerings of grain, milk, ghee, and animals – a clear reflection of the growing importance of agriculture and sedentary life. The Atharvaveda lists gifts recommended for obtaining material benefits, including cows, oxen, gold, cooked rice, houses, and cultivated fields; further emphasizing the value placed on agricultural production.

References in Later Vedic texts to large teams of oxen (eight, twelve, even twenty-four) yoked to ploughs, while possibly symbolic in part, strongly suggest familiarity with intensive plough cultivation techniques.

Land Ownership and Social Structure in the Later Vedic Period

A significant shift occurred from communal clan ownership of land (vis) to individual family ownership as the primary economic unit. Labor for cultivation came primarily from within the family, supplemented by domestic servants and slaves. This change elevated the role of the grhapati (householder) as the primary wealth generator.

The Vaisyas, representing the producing class, became the economic foundation of society. They provided essential goods and services to the Kshatriya and Brahmana classes, who focused on warfare/ruling and ritual practices respectively. Vaisyas offered presentations to the Kshatriyas in exchange for protection and contributed dana and dakshina to priests for spiritual services. This system facilitated the distribution of resources within the evolving social structure.

The absence of references to land sales and the story of Visvakarma Bhauvana suggest that communal ownership remained an important concept. The earth itself rebuking the ruler for attempting a land grant signifies that land held a sacred or collective status, with individual “ownership” likely limited to rights of usage.

Polity

Rigvedic Polity

The Evolving Political Landscape: From Egalitarianism to Hierarchy

While Early Vedic tribal society possessed a significant degree of egalitarianism, divisions began to emerge. References to the Rajanyas (warriors, possibly representing a senior lineage) and the vis (common clansmen, forming a junior lineage) suggest a growing social stratification.

Tribal assemblies like the Gana, Vidatha, Sabha, and Samiti played a crucial role in governance and administration. The Sabha likely consisted of select clan elders, while the Samiti might have included the entire clan. These assemblies, while selecting the raja and overseeing broader decision-making, also served to check the power of the emerging warrior class.

Despite these early signs of hierarchy, Early Vedic society remained primarily egalitarian, guided by tribal customs and values. However, the changes you describe set the stage for the more formalized socio-political hierarchy and the eventual emergence of the Varna system during the Later Vedic period.

Later Vedic Polity

From Jana to Janapada: Territorial Identities and Shifting Power

The Later Vedic period saw a significant shift from the concept of “jana” (tribe) to “janapada” (the territory where a tribe settled). The word “rashtra” (kingdom) also emerged, though it didn’t yet imply a state with strictly defined borders.

The formation of territorial identities is evident in the case of the Kurus and Panchalas. These groups, formed from earlier tribal unions, occupied distinct regions (Kuru desha, Panchala desa), demonstrating a merging of tribal and territorial identities.

Changing Roles of Chiefs and Warriors

As tribes became associated with specific territories, the role of the tribal chief (rajan) evolved. No longer solely focused on cattle raids, the chief became the protector of the tribe’s territory. The term “rajanya,” denoting a superior lineage within the tribe, transformed into “Kshatriya,” signifying those who held authority over a dominion.

This shift in power dynamics led to the subordination of the “vis” (common clansmen). They were required to pay prestations to the Kshatriyas in exchange for protection. Terms like “bali” and “bhaga” gradually evolved from voluntary presentations into regular tributes and taxes, further consolidating the Kshatriya’s authority.

Assemblies and the Rise of Kshatriya Power

The Later Vedic period saw the Sabha (likely a council of elders) gain prominence over the Samiti (the broader clan assembly), reflecting the rising status of the Kshatriya warrior class. References to rajas (chiefs) within the Sabha suggest their role in advising or assisting the ruler. While the position of raja was not strictly hereditary, the pool of eligible candidates remained confined to Kshatriya lineages.

Rituals of Legitimacy

As hereditary rule and primogeniture remained less defined, elaborate rituals like the Rajasuya, Ashvamedha, and Vajapeya played a crucial role in establishing a ruler’s authority. The Ashvamedha, in particular, evolved from a modest affair to a grand spectacle used to assert dominance over neighboring territories. These rituals served as vital legitimizing tools for the raja to proclaim his supremacy. Importantly, they would continue to be used for centuries as new kingdoms and dynasties emerged, emphasizing their enduring power in asserting political authority.

Raja’s Expanding Role

The raja now had to manage a territory, overseeing resources, production, and distribution. This elevated his status beyond that of a leader in battle. However, he was not yet fully sovereign; election and potential removal kept him accountable to the clan. Rajas assisting in governance were often chiefs in their own right, maintaining some autonomy.

Crucially, the Later Vedic period solidified the Kshatriya’s superior status. The emergence of territorial identities, with the ruler embodying power over a specific domain, played a significant role in this shift.

Changing Nature of Conflict and Consolidation of Power

Intra-tribal and tribal conflicts intensified in the Later Vedic period as land acquisition became a driving force. This shift likely reflected population growth and the need to secure resources. Technological advancements, such as iron weaponry and horse-drawn chariots, increased the scale and intensity of warfare. The Kuru clan’s devastating internal conflict, as depicted in the Mahabharata, exemplifies this dynamic.

The Rise of Brahmanas and Redistribution

Alongside the growing importance of the Kshatriyas, Brahmanas emerged as pivotal figures due to their role in legitimizing the ruler’s authority through elaborate rituals. The redistribution of wealth through gifts (dana, dakshina), primarily from Kshatriya patrons to Brahmana priests, became a key component of this system. The centrality of these rituals highlights the initially precarious position of the ruler and the need to demonstrate their worthiness through such spectacles.

Over time, the status of officiating priests rose, even becoming equated with the gods. The belief in the necessity of yajnas to appease the gods and substantial gifts to the officiating Brahmanas reinforced this relationship. This redistribution of resources primarily flowed between the two highest social groups, signaling the consolidation of Kshatriya political dominance.

Religion

Rigvedic Religion

Early Vedic Religion: Nature Worship, Sacrifices, and Social Reflection

The Rigveda offers a window into the religious beliefs of the Early Vedic people. Their patriarchal society and reliance on the natural world shaped a religion centered on animism and the deification of natural forces – wind, rain, fire, etc. These deities, often masculine, embodied both awe-inspiring power and a need for control over unpredictable elements. Few female deities were prominent.

Indra, the god of thunder, strength, and rain, was a central figure. His warrior-like attributes mirror the role of the tribal chieftain. Agni, the fire god, held immense importance as the conduit between gods and men. Offerings carried to the heavens through sacrificial smoke symbolized the vital role of yajnas. Varuna, representing water and cosmic order, and Yama, the god of death, also played prominent roles. Lesser deities like Surya (Sun), Soma, and the celestial beings further populated the Vedic pantheon.

Sacrifices (yajnas) were core religious practices aimed at appeasing the gods and seeking material blessings like victory, cattle, and sons. Hymns and rituals, often led by priests, were key components, reflecting the growing importance of the priestly class.

Religion was less about spiritual elevation or abstract philosophy and more about direct communication with the gods for tangible benefits. The prevalence of animal sacrifice aligns with the pastoral nature of Early Vedic society, where older, less productive animals could be disposed of ritually.

Later Vedic Religion

Diverging Religious Traditions

The Later Vedic period saw a divergence in religious traditions. The Sama and Yajurveda Samhitas, along with the Brahmanas, document the mainstream ‘Vedic’ tradition focused on elaborate sacrificial rituals. In contrast, the Atharvaveda reveals a distinct, likely pre-existing folk tradition that incorporated a wider range of beliefs and practices.

Sacrificial Religion and Fertility Cults

Sacrifices (yajnas) became increasingly central, encompassing both public spectacles (Rajasuya, Vajapeya, Ashvamedha) and private rites. Elements of fertility cults, evident in some rituals, highlight the growing importance of agriculture and the desire to ensure bountiful harvests.

The Rise of Priestly Power

The complexity of Later Vedic rituals demanded specialized knowledge, leading to the emergence of a professional priestly class. Precise rules (vidhis) governed sacrifices, which were tailored to the patron’s needs and imbued with mystical symbolism. This emphasis on ritualistic complexity solidified the priests’ power and elevated their social status.

Shifting Pantheon

Early Vedic gods like Indra and Agni lost prominence, while Prajapati (the creator) gained significance. Rudra, a minor figure in the Rigveda, rose in importance. Vishnu emerged as a powerful protector and sustainer. Even Pushan, once protector of cattle, was reimagined as a deity of the Shudras. These changes reflect the transition from a primarily pastoral society to one increasingly focused on settled agriculture. The anthropomorphic representation of natural forces became complex and less direct, signifying a shift in how people perceived the divine.

The Folk Tradition Revealed in the Atharvaveda

The Atharvaveda offers a unique glimpse into the folk beliefs and practices of the Later Vedic period, contrasting sharply with the elaborate sacrificial religion of the mainstream Vedic tradition. Its focus on magic, charms, and rituals reflects a deeply personal and pragmatic approach to the divine. Hymns address a wide range of concerns: healing, prosperity, family life, love, and even curses aimed at rivals.

While Vedic deities are sometimes invoked, their roles are often mundane. Alongside them, a host of lesser spirits – benevolent and malevolent – are appeased or invoked for specific outcomes. These rituals offer insight into the hopes, fears, and daily concerns of ordinary people.

The Rise of Philosophical Thought

By the end of the Later Vedic period, a growing disenchantment with ritualistic complexity and priestly power paved the way for the philosophical revolution found in the Upanishads. The emphasis shifted from external sacrifices to the inner search for knowledge of the Atman (soul). This marked a fundamental departure from the older emphasis on material gain, raising religion to the realm of abstract thought. The Upanishadic emphasis on the unchanging, indestructible soul may have resonated with a society seeking stability amidst a period of political and social transformation.

Religion Mirroring Social Change

The religious evolution of the Later Vedic period mirrors broader societal shifts. As pastoralism gave way to settled agriculture, so too did the simple nature worship of the Early Vedic period transform. Religious changes paralleled and interacted with significant socio-economic changes during this transformative era.

Conclusion

The study of Vedic society isn’t merely about understanding a specific historical period. It offers a broader perspective on the evolution of human societies. The Vedic journey from nomadic pastoralism to settled agriculture, from simple nature worship to complex ritual systems, mirrors patterns found in cultures across the globe. Their struggles with social stratification, the consolidation of power, and the eternal questions of existence provide timeless lessons relevant even today.

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